Commercial Study Guide

V-Speeds for the Piper Arrow - PA28R-201

Vso – 55 kts Vs – 60 kts Vfe – 103 kts

Vno – 146 kts Vne – 183 kts Va – 96 kts(1865 lbs.) & 118(2750 lbs)

Vy(gear down) – 78 kts Vy(gear up) – 90 kts

Vx(gear down) – 72 kts Vx(gear up) – 78 kts

VLE – 129 kts VLO – 107* & 129*

Remember VLO is actually two speeds because it is the operation speed. Basically it means when the gear is in transit. This happens twice(retraction & extension). Max gear retraction is 107 and max gear extension is 129. VLE is gear extended speed, the max speed you can fly around with the gear down and locked.
What is Va and why does it change with weight?

Va is the maximum speed at which application of full available aerodynamic control will not overstress the airplane. You want to be below this airspeed when you encounter turbulence or are maneuvering.
There is a couple of different ways of explaining why Va changes with weight. The most common has to do with angle of attack.

We have two aircraft:

Both aircraft are the same types and at the same airspeeds but are at different weights. Aircraft B is closer to the critical angle of attack. Thus, aircraft B is going to stall sooner. Remember, below Va we are going to stall before we overstress the aircraft so as a result if aircraft B is going to stall sooner, we can increase its Va.

Another way to look at why Va changes with weight comes out of the Arrow POH(pg. 2-1) and it deals with inertia. The larger an aircraft is, the less effect the aerodynamic forces are going to be when you use the flight controls. Thus a larger aircraft can go faster because the plane is not going to maneuver as quickly and decrease its ability to overstress the aircraft.

· Does stall speed change?

Yes! Configuration, weight, center of gravity, load factor, and wing contamination will change stall speed.

Configuration: The addition of flaps will lower stall speed. This is due to the change in camber of the wing with flaps.


Weight: An increase in weight will increase stall speed. A heavier airplane will fly at a higher angle of attack, and thus be closer to the critical angle of attack

Center of Gravity: An aft center of gravity will lower stall speed. This is because of the less tail down force required with an aft center of gravity. This results in the aircraft flying at lower angle of attack and farther away from the critical angle of attack.

Load Factor: As we increase bank, load factor increases. As we bank, we lose the vertical component of lift and as a result must increase the angle of attack. This puts the aircraft closer to the critical of angle, resulting in an increase in stall speed.

Wing Contamination: Any contamination in the form of ice, bugs, or wing structural damage will result in the airflow over the wing being disturbed. This causes early airflow separation and an increase in stall speed. This will vary greatly with the contamination.

Please note that we are talking about IAS. Thus, density altitude will NOT affect IAS.

1. Spin Awareness
· What aerodynamic conditions are required to enter a spin?
Both wings must be stalled but one is more stalled than the other. Generally this is caused by not being coordinated by improper use of the rudder. In the spin your airspeed is low even though the nose of the aircraft is pointing towards the ground.

· What are the four phases of a spin?

Entry phase – where the pilot provides the necessary elements for the spin.

Incipient phase – from the time the airplane stalls and rotation starts until the spin has fully developed. This may take up to two turns for most aircraft. In this phase, the aerodynamic and inertial forces have not achieved a balance.

Developed phase – occurs when the airplane’s angular rotation rate, airspeed, and vertical speed are stabilized while in a flightpath that is nearly vertical. This is where airplane aerodynamic forces and inertial forces are in balance. This spin is in equilibrium.

Recovery phase – control inputs are initiated to disrupt the spin equilibrium by stopping the rotation and stall.

Where is the most frequent flight situation where someone might accidentally enter a spin?
Generally in the past records has shown that turning final has been the most frequent cause of spins. A pilot might make the error of overshooting final. The pilot remembering from their initial training will wisely not want to increase bank beyond 30 degrees. The pilot instead of increasing bank could use rudder to increase the rate of turn resulting in uncoordinated flight. The pilot will begin to pull back and could result in a slow airspeed close to stall while being uncoordinated. These are the ingredients for entering a spin.

How would you recover from a spin?
Follow the checklist:

Rudder – Full opposite to direction of rotation. This is to break the rotation

Control Wheel – Full forward/Ailerons Neutral. We want to break the stall so as a result we lower the nose. We don’t want to use ailerons because this could actually aggravate the spin.

Throttle – Idle. We want to keep the pitch of the aircraft down to break the stall. Power will cause the pitch attitude to increase

Rudder – Neutral(When rotation stops) This is to prevent from inadvertently spinning in the opposite direction

Control – As required. You are pulling out of the dive

Throttle – As required. Resume normal cruise flight

What would an aft CG due to a spin?
Recovery from a stall in any aircraft becomes progressively more difficult as its center of gravity moves aft. This is particular important in spin recovery, as there is a point in rearward loading of any airplane at which a flat spin will develop. A flat spin could be impossible to recover from.

3. Certificates and Documents
· The documents should be a basic review from 102

Airworthiness Certificate

Explanation: The FAA issues an Airworthiness Certificate to all approved aircraft manufactured in the US (and some foreign countries).

Validity: The PIC must ensure that the Airworthiness Certificate is visibly displayed to all passengers and that the aircrafts’ “N number” appears on the certificate. For the Airworthiness Certificate to be valid, all required inspections must be completed, all FAA Airworthiness Directives complied with, and the PIC must have found the aircraft safe for flight.

Carriage: The Airworthiness Certificate must be visibly displayed (for all passengers to see). When the aircraft is sold, the Airworthiness Certificate is automatically transferred to the new owner. UND aircraft display the Airworthiness Certificate on the aft baggage bulkhead.

Federal Registration Certificate

Explanation: The FAA requires all US aircraft owners to register their aircraft. This registration is separate from any required state registration.

Validity: The aircraft must be registered under the owners’ name, and the correct “N number” must appear on the certificate. If the aircraft is sold, scrapped, or totaled, the FAA must be notified.

Carriage: The Federal Registration Certificate must be carried onboard the aircraft during flight. However, it doesn’t necessarily need to be displayed. UND displays the Federal Registration Certificate on the aft baggage bulkhead under the Airworthiness Certificate.

State Registration

Explanation: Some states require owners to register their aircraft. (ND does require state registration.) Since the FAA does not require the certificate, it will generally not be examined during a FAA ramp check. If the owner does not register the aircraft (when required), the FAA will not take enforcement action (i.e. a violation) but the state may fine the owner/operator.

Validity: Each state will set their own requirements for validity. ND owners must register their aircraft annually, and the “N number” must appear on the certificate.

Carriage: UND aircraft carry the ND state registration in the back of the Dispatch Book. New aircraft may not have a ND Registration Certificate.

FCC Radio Station License

Explanation: US aircraft operated within the US are not required to carry a FCC (Federal Communications Commission) Radio Station License on board the aircraft. However, US aircraft operated outside of the US are required to carry a FCC Radio Station License on board.

Validity: The certificate must have the owners’ name and address, and display the aircrafts’ “N number.”

Carriage: The certificate is required to be carried on board the aircraft during flights into foreign airspace, but doesn’t necessarily need to be displayed. UND aircraft carry the Radio Station License in the back of the Dispatch Book. New aircraft may not have a license yet.

Operating Limitations

Explanation: All aircraft must carry the FAA approved Pilot’s Operating Handbook or Airplane Flight Manual. In addition, they must contain all placards required by the “Limitations” section of the POH/AFM.

Validity: The POH must display the aircrafts’ “N number” and serial number on the cover page. POH’s purchased in the UND bookstore or from other pilot shops are not considered official, because they are not automatically updated if the aircraft is modified.

Carriage: The POH/AFM and all required placards must be on board the aircraft during flight. UND carries the POH in the seat pocket behind the pilot or copilot seat.

Weight and Balance and Equipment List

Explanation: Each aircraft must carry a record of the current basic empty weight, moment, and useful load. In addition, the aircraft must carry a list of all equipment, standard and optional, installed on the aircraft.

Validity: The weight, moment, and useful load must be published by the factory or approved (signed) by a certified mechanic. (i.e. A&P, CRS) The equipment list must be up to date and complete.

Carriage: The weight and balance is found in Section 6 of the POH, and the original equipment list is found in the back of the approved POH. When the weight and balance/equipment list is revised (i.e. due to the addition of new equipment), the old weight and balance is labeled “Superceded DD/MM/YY.” The new weight and balance and equipment list revision form is filed in Section 6 of the POH.

Minimum Equipment List

Explanation: Some aircraft contain a FAA approved Minimum Equipment List to allow them to operate with inoperative instruments and equipment. (UND aircraft contain these lists.) Each list includes four components: a Letter of Authorization, a Procedures Document, a Master Minimum Equipment List (MMEL), and a Preamble to the MMEL. The Letter of Authorization (LOA) is issued by the FAA and lists the “N numbers” of all aircraft authorized to operate under the MEL. The Procedures Document explains which equipment may be inoperative for flight and what procedures/actions must be taken before the aircraft can be flown. The Master Minimum Equipment List is created by the aircraft manufacturer and lists all equipment that may be inoperative for flight. The owner/operator (UND) may choose to leave some of these items out of the Procedures Document, and which then must be operative for flight. The Preamble to the MMEL explains how the manufacturer created the MMEL.

Validity: The aircraft’s “N number” must appear on the LOA, and the FAA must approve the entire Procedures Document. The MEL (Procedures Document) + LOA = a Supplemental Type Certificate (STC) An STC allows an aircraft to be flown after it has been modified (i.e. a different engine, inoperative equipment, etc.)

Carriage: All four components of the MEL must be onboard the aircraft for flight. UND places them in a black binder, which is usually found on one of the rear seats.

· How do we get a MEL?

The FAA has only one procedure for the issuance of MEL’s. The operator who wishes to conduct operations must contact the FSDO which has jurisdiction over the geographic area where the aircraft is based and make an appointment. The FSDO will then assign an inspector to advise the applicant about FAR requirements pertinent to using an MEL.
The assigned inspector will then provide the applicant with a copy of the appropriate MMEL, a copy of AC 91-67, and a copy of the preamble to the MMEL.

After this, the applicant and a team of inspectors (likely inspectors from the operations, airworthiness, and avionics unit) will discuss the requirements for the procedures document. When FSDO personnel believes that the applicant understands the requirements for operating with an MEL, the FSDO issues the operator the LOA.

Once the FSDO issues the LOA, the applicant is then responsible for developing the procedures document that will contain O and M procedures for disabling or rendering inoperative items. No further FAA approval is necessary, and the operator can begin flight operations. The MMEL, preamble, LOA, and the procedures document are now considered an MEL.

How to Remember All of the Documents:

MEL
Airworthiness Certificate
Registration (Federal)
Registration (State) and FCC Radio Station License
Operating Limitations (POH and Placards)
Weight and Balance and Equipment List

Certificates

Does your certificate expire? No – but you do need a BFR

BFR – 61.56 specifies that every 24 calendar months you need to do 1 hour of ground training and 1 hour of flight training. This only applies if in the preceding 24 calendar months you have not received a new certificate.

Does a UND stage check count as a BFR?

Yes & no. It depends on the stage check. Any final stage check where a certificate is issued counts as a BFR. (102/34, 325/104, 414/37, 415/26) This is no different than if you were to get a certificate part 61 from a designated piloted examiner.
You could count most stage checks as a BFR if you ask your stage check pilot in advance and he agrees to do it. The stage check pilot will need to make the proper entries in your logbook to denote that a BFR was completed. For final certificates, the date the actual certificate is issued is the date that will count to as when you will need another BFR. Not the date the stage check was completed.

Do you need to have your medical with you? What kind do you need and how long is it valid for?

Yes! You need to always have your certificate and medical with you when you are part of the flight crew(61.3)

When flying for compensation or hire you need at least a 2nd class medical which is valid for 12 calendar months. Although, if you are only going to exercise private privileges you only need a 3rd class medical.

Example: You get your 1st class medical on January 5, 2001. You can exercise commercial pilot privileges until January 31, 2002. You can use private pilot privileges until January 31, 2004(If your under 40).

Commercial Pilot Privileges

· You will be expected to know your basic privileges and limitations

61.133
A person who holds a commercial pilot certificate may act as PIC of an aircraft:
a) carrying persons or property for compensation or hire
b) for compensation or hire

- But keep in mind 61.133 also states that a commercial pilot must follow the applicable regulations such as part 121 & 135

Thus, a commercial pilot intending to conduct operations as PIC for hire should look cautiously at any proposal for revenue operating flights

The following facts should be considered:
a) Part 61 states that you may be paid for acting as PIC of an aircraft engaged in carrying for hire. Part 61 does not mention, that if acting totally by yourself, you could be considered a commercial operation(ie.Mesaba) and as such be subject to an entirely different set of regulations
b) A commercial pilot license by itself does not allow you to act as a commercial operator. It only allows you to work for a commercial operator and be paid for your service.
c) As a commercial pilot there are certain commercial operations where you do not need an operating certificate. Basically there are no restrictions. Examples of such operations are: student instruction, certain nonstop sightseeing, ferry or training flights, aerial work operations including crop dusting, banner towing, aerial photography, powerline or pipeline patrol etc. These are listed in part 119.1

· The basic test to see if you are acting like a commercial operator is if you were to be considered “holding out”. Holding out can be done in several ways:
- signs and advertising
- actions of salesmen
- physically holding out without advertising

Currency

This should be a basic review of 61.57. Remember you need 3 takeoff & landings as sole manipulator of the controls in the last 90 days in the same category(airplane, glider, airship) & class(single engine land, multi-engine land) in order to carry passengers. If you are going to be flying between 1 hour after sunset and 1 hour before sunrise you will need to do the landings to a full stop and within that time period. Remember: If you do 3 takeoffs and landings in a Seminole, you are NOT current in a warrior. But if you do 3 takeoffs and landings in C-172, you ARE current in a warrior. Also if you are night current, you ARE day current.

Maintenance

· What kind of maintenance program do we have at UND? Progressive!

- Instead of performing the annual or 100 hour inspection all at once, UND breaks the inspections into four phases. Each phase inspection includes a detailed inspection of selected components and a routine inspection of the remaining components. Phase inspections are conducted at 60-hour intervals. After all four inspections are complete, the aircraft has undergone the equivalent of an annual inspection. FAR 91.409 states that the aircraft must be airworthy at all times, and that the program must ensure that a complete inspection (detailed inspection of all components, completing an annual) is completed within each 12 calendar months. To comply with this FAR, the four phase inspections must be completed within a 12 month period.

The following table breaks down each phase inspection:

Phase
Detailed Inspection Items
Routine Inspection Items
1
Fuselage, Cabin, Empennage
Engine, Propeller, Wings, Landing Gear
2
Engine, Propeller
Cabin, Fuselage, Empennage, Wings, Landing Gear
3
Wings, Landing Gear
Cabin, Fuselage, Empennage, Engine, Propeller
4
Engine, Propeller
Cabin, Fuselage, Empennage, Wings, Landing Gear

More information can be found on the “Progressive Inspection” Study Guide on the HTMLez website

· Outside UND: What kind of maintenance needs to be done?

- Annual: For ALL aircraft and must be signed off by an Aircraft Inspector(IA)
- 100 hour: if carrying any person for hire or flight instruction. This can be signed off by an Airframe & Powerplant Mechanic(A&P) or an IA

- The annual is acceptable for a 100 hour but not vice-versa. You may overfly a 100 hour but not for more than 10 hours if the aircraft is to be flown to a place where the inspection can be done. The excess time used to reach a place where the inspection can be done must be included in computing the next 100 hours of time in service.

· Equipment Checks
- Transponder: inspected every 24 calendar months(91.413)
- ELT: inspected every 12 calendar months(91.207)
- Pitot-Static: inspected every 24 calendar months before IFR flight(91.411)

Required Equipment – 91.205

VFR

Day:
T – tachometer for each engine
O – oil pressure gauge for each engine
M – magnetic compass
A – airspeed indicator
T – temperature gauge for each liquid cooled engine
O – oil temperature gauge for each air cooled engine
F – fuel quantity indicator for each tank
L – landing gear position indicator for an airplane with retractable gear
A – altimeter
M – manifold pressure gauge for each altitude engine
E – ELT
S – seatbelts

Night:
F – fuses, one spare set, or three spare fuses of each kind required, that are accessible (the warrior has circuit breakers, so this doesn’t apply to us)
L – landing light if being operated for hire
A – anti-collision light system
P – position lights (after sunset)
S – source of electrical energy, this could be a battery or an alternator

IFR

G – generator
R – rate of turn indicator(turn coordinator)
A – altimeter
B – ball(slip-indicator ie. Inclinometer)
C – clock
A – attitude indicator
R – Two way radio & navigation equipment appropriate to the ground facilities to be used
D – Directional Gyro(Heading Indicator)

Inoperative Equipment

· You will be expected to explain the procedures to fly with inoperative equipment with a MEL and without a MEL. The best publication produced on this topic is Advisory Circular 91-67. You can find this file under “study guides” on the HTMLez website. Take special attention to the two flow charts on operating with/without a MEL on pages 8 & 16.
· Make sure you know the UND MEL procedures!(Discrepancy sheets, placards…etc.)

Special Flight Permits

· What is it and when are they necessary?

A “Special Flight Permit” may be issued for an aircraft that may not currently meet applicable airworthiness requirements but is capable of safe flight. These permits are typically issued for the following purposes:

- Flying an aircraft to a base where repairs will be made
- Delivering or exporting an aircraft
- Production flight testing
- Evacuating aircraft from areas of impending danger
- Customer demonstration flights

4. Weather Information

· This should be a review from 102. Be able interpret the following weather products and discuss a competent “go/no-go” decision. Use the aviation weather services book for studying but practice reading the weather using WSI or DUATS.

- METARs (Aviation Routine Weather Reports)
- SDs (Radar Reports)
- UAs (Pilot Reports)
- TAFs (Terminal Area Forecasts)
- FAs (Area Forecasts)
- FDs (Winds Aloft Forecasts)
- Inflight Advisories – Including the criteria for issuance
o WAs (Airmets)
o WSs (Sigmets)
o WSTs (Convective Sigmets)
- Surface Analysis Charts
- Weather Depiction Charts
- Radar Summary Charts
- Low Level Significant Weather Prognostic Charts (12/24 Hour)

5. Cross-Country Flight Planning

· This should be another review from 102. Your stage check pilot will give you a XC planning assignment. Be prepared to calculate close to maximum allowable passenger, baggage, and cargo loads. This may include an additional fuel stop or setting a lower power setting. DON’T FORGET TO CALCULATE A MANIFOLD PRESSURE. How else are you going to set the power? Also calculate a CAS! There is a box for it.

- Be familiar with the Arrow’s performance charts

· You will also be evaluated on the following:

- Selection of the course and checkpoints, including the use of applicable publications (A/FD, Charts)
- Use of radio navigation, including VOR radials and planning
- Selection of altitude based on forecast winds aloft, aircraft performance, course, etc.
- Computing True Airspeed
- Computing True Course, Magnetic Course, Wind Correction Angles, and Compass Heading
- Computing estimated groundspeed and ETE/ETA’s
- Fuel planning and requirements
- Filing a VFR Flight Plan

6. National Airspace System

· Another review from 102.
· You should be able to explain:
- all the different airspace/special use airspace and their associated weather minimums.
- airspace on any sectional not just the twin cities.
- equipment and pilot requirements for entering the different airspaces.

7. Performance and Limitations

· You should be very familiar with all performance charts for the arrow(section 5).
· Make sure you know the proper leaning procedures
· Best power: 100 degrees rich of peak EGT
· Best economy: Peak EGT
· You will be expected to know the factors affecting performance
· Wind
· Temperature
· Humidity(It decreases performance)
· Pressure
· What affects “maximum range” and “maximum endurance” and what is used to calculate them?
· The difference between IAS, CAS, TAS
IAS: What is read from your airspeed indicator
CAS: IAS corrected for position and instrument error. Use the POH(5-12) to convert IAS to CAS and vice versa
TAS: CAS corrected for altitude, temperature, and compressibility. You use your E6-B to convert CAS to TAS and vice versa

· Be able to discuss all V-speeds and when we would use them
· What effect would an aft CG have on an aircraft? Why?
- higher TAS, lower stall speed but less stability. The reasoning is there is less required tail down force. The aircraft acts more efficiently.

8. Operation of Systems

· You should be able to explain all systems of the Arrow. It is beyond the scope of this study guide to do this. When studying I would recommend using the Arrow study guide, the trainer available at the CBI lab and the POH. The stage check pilot will be required to ask you at least 5 of the following systems:

a. Primary flight controls, trims
· What are they?
· What are secondary flight controls?
· What is the difference between a trim tab and an anti-servo tab?

b. Flaps, leading edge devices, and spoilers
· What do flaps do?
· What is a “slot” and “slat”?

c. Powerplant and propeller
· What is the BHP of the Arrow?
· How does the propeller governor work?

d. Landing Gear
· What does the Arrow have to prevent us from landing gear up?
· Explain the landing gear schematic (page 7-9 POH)
· How does the manual landing gear extension work?
· Name all the switches on the gear and what they do?

e. Fuel System
· What types of fuels are approved for this aircraft?
· How many gallons of useable fuel are available?
· What is a “servo regulator”?
· What is a “fuel distributor”?

f. Electrical System
· Diagram the electrical system
· What is a voltage regulator and overvoltage relay?
· What kind of battery/alternator do we have?

g. Avionics system
· What is a “HSI”?

h. Pitot-static, vacuum/pressure and associated flight instruments
· What inputs into each of the instruments?
· What can you do if your vacuum/static instruments fail?

i. Environmental System
· How is the cabin heated and why might this be a hazard?

j. De-icing and Anti-icing systems
a) Does this aircraft have any type of de-ice or anti-ice capability?

9. Aeromedical Factors

· You will be expected to be able to explain the causes, effects, and corrective action of at least four of the following:

Hypoxia
o You should know all four types:
§ Hypemic: body cannot carry enough oxygen(Carbon Monoxide Poisoning)
§ Stagnant: inadequate circulation of oxygen(G-forces)
§ Histotoxic: inability of the cells to use oxygen(alcohol)
§ Hypoxic: inadequate amount of oxygen(climbing to a high altitude)

o Corrective Actions: supplemental oxygen, descend

Hyperventilation
o Excessive breathing. Can be caused by emotional stress, fright, or pain.

o Corrective Actions: breathe in paper bag, talk aloud, calm down, slow breathing rate

Middle Ear and Sinus Problems
o During descent the difference in pressure between inside the eardrum and outside the eardrum can cause pain. This can be aggravated by illness.

o Corrective Actions: valsalva maneuver, swallowing, chewing gum, decreasing descent rate or even climbing

Spatial Disorientation
o Your inner ear contains semicircular canals and the vestibule. These two together are called the vestibular system which is what gives the brain information on your body’s orientation. You can experience a variety of illusions as your brain interprets signals as specific motions. When subjected to the different forces of flight, the vestibular system can send misleading signals

o Corrective Actions: Trust your instruments!

Motion Sickness
o Caused by overstimulation of the vestibular system

o Corrective Actions: Open vents, loosen clothing, use O2, keep eyes outside

Carbon Monoxide
o Caused by a leak in the exhaust manifold which allows exhaust from the engine into the cabin

o Corrective Actions: close heat & defroster, open air vents, land as soon as practical

Stress & Fatigue
o Remember the “IMSAFE” checklist. (Illness, medication, stress, alcohol, fatigue, emotion)
o Acute fatigue – normal daily strain
o Chronic fatigue – not enough time for recovery of acute fatigue.

Alcohol & Drugs
o 8 hours bottle to throttle(91.17)
o altitude increases effects
o prescription and over the counter drugs should be approved by a flight surgeon

Nitrogen/Scuba Diving
o Nitrogen bubbles are released as pressure decreases
o May cause severe pain, paralysis, death
o You should wait at least(AIM 8-1-4):
§ Flying over 8,000’ 24 hours
§ Dive requiring decompression 24 hours
§ Dive non-controlled accent 12 hours

Dehydration
o The loss of water from respiration, sweat, and urination
o Water supports: blood pressure, oxygen delivery, body cooling, and waste processing
o Even mild dehydration has negative impacts: decreased coordination, fatigue, and impairment of judgement
o Prevention: drink fluids proactively not based on thirst. Drink plenty of water or sport drinks
o Amount of fluid you need is dependent upon your condition, stay in tune to your body
o Read the dehydration power point presentation on HTMLez

10. Night Flying

· Definition of Night
The definition of night can be found in FAR part 1, which defines it as the time between the end of civil twilight and the beginning of morning civil twilight. This is when we can log night time. It is usually about ½ hour after sunset, but does vary due to latitude.
- Position Lights need to be on from sunset to sunrise

· Physiology
Rods – used for peripheral vision and are located in a ring around the cones. Rods are better suited for night vision, and take about 30 minutes to adjust for darkness
Cones – used to detect color, detail, and are located in the center of the retina at the back of the eye. They are less sensitive to light, and are most useful for daylight hours.
- Significant deterioration in night vision can occur at altitudes as low as 5,000’, so if able use oxygen.

· Illusions
Featureless Terrain – creates the illusion the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is.
Autokinesis – in the dark, a static light will appear to move about when stared at for many seconds. The disorientated pilot will lose control of the aircraft while attempting to align it with the light.
Empty Field Myopia – usually occurs when flying above the clouds in a haze where there is little to focus on. This causes the eye to relax and seek a comfortable focal distance, which may range from 10 to 30 feet. This means looking without seeing.
Spatial Disorientation – not correctly interpreting what is up/down.
False Horizon – an obscured horizon, a dark scene spread with ground lights and stars, and certain geometric patterns of ground light can create illusions of not being aligned correctly with the actual horizon.
Bright runway lights – may create the illusion of less distance to the runway

Airport Facility Directory(AFD)

Before flight to any airport, the current airport facility directory should be consulted. On your stage check the stage check pilot may ask you questions about the AFD. You should be familiar with the directory legend in the front.

Pilot Control of Airport Lighting
Radio control of lighting is available at selected airports to provide airborne control of lights by keying the microphone.

7 clicks for high intensity (within 5-seconds)
5 clicks for medium intensity (within 5-seconds)
3 clicks for low intensity (within 5-seconds)

Beacons:
Lighted civilian land airports – alternating white & green
Lighted military airports – dual peaked white flashes between green flashes
Lighted heliport – green, yellow, white
Lighted water airport – white and yellow

Light Gun Signals(91.125)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Meaning with respect to Meaning withColor and type of signal aircraft on the respect to Surface aircraft in flight------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Steady green Cleared for Cleared to land. takeoff. Flashing green Cleared to taxi... Return for landing (to be followed by steady green at proper time). Steady red Stop Give way to other aircraft and continue circling. Flashing red Taxi clear of Airport unsafe--do runway in use. not land. Flashing white Return to starting Not applicable. point on airport. Alternating red and green Exercise extreme Exercise extreme caution. caution.



High Altitude Operations

· What are the part 91 oxygen requirements?

The flight crew needs oxygen if for more than 30 minutes you are operating at cabin altitudes of 12,500 MSL to 14,000 MSL. At cabin altitudes above 14,000 the flight crew needs oxygen regardless of the length you are operating above 14,000. Above 15,000 all passengers need oxygen.

· Can any kind of oxygen be used for supplemental oxygen?
No, oxygen used for medical purposes normally should not be used because it may contain too much water. The excess water could condense and freeze in the oxygen lines when flying at high altitudes. Specifications for “aviator’s breathing oxygen” are 99.5% pure oxygen.

· What are some different kinds oxygen systems?
Oxygen system for aviation use are available in the three basic configurations; continuous flow, diluter demand, and pressure demand.

Continuous flow – provides continuous flow of oxygen and are generally good up to 25,000’

Diluter demand – this features a valve that opens to allow cabin air into the mask to mix with oxygen. As you climb, the duration and amount that the valve opens progressively decreases until about 28,000’, where the valve remains closed to provide 100% oxygen for inhalation.

Pressure demand – at altitudes above 40,000’, even breathing 100% oxygen is not enough to provide adequate respiration because the atmospheric pressure is too low to support proper oxygen saturation into the bloodstream. The pressure demand system is used to provide positive pressure oxygen, which is forced into your lungs when you inhale.