CFI Study Guide - FOI

CFI Practical Study Guide

Fundamentals of Instructing

A. The Learning Process
a. Learning Theory
i. Learning is defined as a change in behavior as a result of an experience. There are also the Behaviorism Theory and Cognitive Theory.
b. Characteristics of Learning
i. Purposeful – each student is a unique individual whose past experience affects readiness to learn and understanding of requirements involved.
ii. Result of experience – learning is an individual process from individual experience. Knowledge cannot be poured into the student’s head.
iii. Multifaceted – It may involve verbal, conceptual, perceptual, or emotional elements, and elements of problem solving all taking place at once.
iv. Active Process – For students to learn, they must react and respond.
c. Principles of Learning
i. Readiness – Individuals learn best when they are ready to learn, and they do not learning if they see no reason for it or lack motivation. If students have a strong purpose, a clear, objective, and a well fixed reason for learning something, they make more progress.
ii. Exercise – those things that are often repeated are best remembered. It is the basis of practice and drill.
iii. Effect – learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, but weekend when associated with an unpleasant feeling.
iv. Primacy – things that are stated first are best remembered. They create a strong, unshakable impression. What is taught the first time must be correct. Un-teaching is much more difficult.
v. Intensity – A vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or boring experience.
vi. Recency – The things most recently learned are best remembered.
d. Level of Learning
i. Rote – the ability to repeat back something which one has been taught, without understanding or being able to apply what has been learned.
ii. Understanding –Perceiving and learning what has been taught. To comprehend or grasp the nature of meaning of something.
iii. Application – Achieving the skill to apply what has been learned and to perform correctly. The act of putting something to use that has been learned and understood.
iv. Correlation - Associating what has been learned with other things previously learn or encountered.
e. Learning Physical skills
i. Physical skill- involve more than just muscles: Perceptions change as the physical skill becomes easier.
ii. Desire to learn – shorter initial learning time and more rapid progress take place when a desire to learn exists.
iii. Patterns to following – the best way to prepare a student is to provide a clear step-by-step example.
iv. Perform the skill – the student’s needs coordination between muscles and visual and tactile sense.
v. Knowledge of results: It is important for students to be aware of their progress.
vi. Progress follows a pattern – learning a skill usually follows a pattern. There is rapid improvement in the early stages, followed by a leveling off or learning plateau.
vii. Duration and organization of the lesson: In planning for student performance, the length of time devoted to practice is very important.
viii. Evaluation versus critique – in the initial stages, practical suggestions are more valuable than a grade.
ix. Application of skill – students must use what has been learned – they must learn the skill so well that it becomes easy to perform.
f. Memory
i. Disuse – a person forgets things that are not used.
ii. Interference – A certain experience has overshadowed it, or the learning of something similar has interfered.
iii. Repression – the submersion of ideas into the unconscious mind, they may unintentionally repress unpleasant material, or that which produced anxiety.
iv. Actions or Assist Retention
1. Praise stimulates remembering
2. Recall is prompted by association
3. Favorable attitudes
4. Learning with all our senses is most effective
5. Meaningful repetition aids recall.
g. Transfer of Learning
i. Positive Transfer – Learning A helps with learning B.
ii. Negative Transfer – Learning A hinders learning B.


B. Human Behavior and Effective Communication
a. Control of human behavior
i. Relationship between student and instructor has a profound impact on how much the student learns.
ii. Directing students actions to modify their behavior.
b. Human needs
i. Physical – need for food, rest and protection
ii. Safety – protection against dangers, threats, and deprivation.
iii. Social – To belong, to associate, and to give and receive friendship and love.
iv. Egoistic – instructor student relationship. Ones self-esteem, self-confidence, independence, achievement, competence, and knowledge, respect from associates.
v. Self-fulfillment – Realizing ones own potential for continued development.
c. Defense mechanisms
i. Rationalization – justifying actions that other wise would be unacceptable; substitution of excuses for reasons
ii. Flight – Escaping from frustrating situations by taking flight physically or mentally; examples are faked illness or day dreaming.
iii. Aggression – students may ask irrelevant questions; refuse to participate, when they cannot deal directly with the cause of their frustration.
iv. Resignation – students may become so frustrated that they lose interest and give up.
d. The flight instructor as a practical psychologist
i. Anxiety – “ a state if mental uneasiness arising from fear – instructor can reinforce student’s enjoyment of flying, by teaching them to cope with their fears. Treat fears as normal reactions, rather than ignoring them.
ii. Normal reactions to stress – respond rapidly and exactly, within the limits of their experience and training.
iii. Abnormal reactions to stress- extreme over cooperation, inappropriate singing or laughter, rapid changes in emotions.
e. Basic elements of communication
i. The source – sender, speaker, transmitter, or instructor
ii. The symbols – words or signs.
iii. The receiver – listener, reader, or student.
f. Barriers of effective communication
i. Lack of common experience
ii. Confusion between the symbol and the symbolized object
iii. Overuse of abstractions
iv. Interference.
g. Developing communication skills
i. The ability to effectively communicate stems from experience
ii. Instructional Communication – instruction has taken place when the instructor has explained a particular procedure and subsequently determined that the desired student response has occurred.
iii. Listening – instructor must know something about their students in order to communicate effectively.
iv. Questioning – to determine how well the student understands

C. The Teaching Process
a. Preparation of a lesson for a ground or flight instructional period.
i. Preparation – lesson objectives, goals, critique. Lesson plan should be written out.
b. Presentation methods
i. Lecture Method – presenting new material, summarizing ideas, short amount of time to present material
ii. Demonstration performance Method – instructor will demonstrate the maneuver to the student
iii. Guided Discussion – requires active participation, uses questioning.
c. Application, by the student, of the material or procedure presented.
i. The student uses what the instructor has presented. Student may be asked to perform a procedure or operation that has just been demonstrated.
d. Review and evaluation of student performance
i. The instructor should review what has been covered during the lesson and require the students to demonstrate how well the lesson objectives have been met.

D. Teaching Methods
a. Material organization
The organization of a lesson, i.e., introduction, development, and conclusion.
. Introduction – establish common ground between the instructor
and the students.
1. Attention
2. Motivation
3. Overview
Development
1. From past to present
2. From Simple to Complex
3. From Known to Unknown
4. From Most Frequently Used to Least Frequently Used
. Conclusion
1. Retraces important elements of lesson and relates them to
objective, remember, no new ideas should be introduced.

i. Attention – established common ground between instructor and student. Capture and hold the attention of the student. Specify benefits the student can expect from the lesson.
ii. Motivation – Establish receptive attitude toward lesson. Create smooth transition into the lesson. Why is the lesson content important to know.
iii. Overview – Indicate what is to be covered and relate this information to the overall course.
b. The lecture method
i. Used for introduction of new material, subject. Good for large or small groups. No interaction from students.
c. The cooperative or group learning method
i. Organizes students into small groups there they work together to maximize their own and each others learning. Continually requires active student participation.
d. The guided discussion method
i. Instructor relies on the student to provide ideas, experiences, opinions and information. Goal is the draw out what the students know, rather then telling them. Lead off question – starts the discussion. Follow up question – used to continue discussion. Overhead question – directed to the entire group to stimulate thought. Rhetorical question - instructor asks the question but also answers it. Direct Question – asked to a single student. Reverse Question – the instructor asks a question in response to a student’s question. Relay question – redirected to the group instead of the individual.
e. The demonstration performance method.
i. Explanation – must be clear, pertinent to the objectives of the particular lesson to be presented. Based on the knowledge of the student
ii. Demonstration – The instructor must show the student the actions necessary to perform a skill.
iii. Student Performance and Instructor Supervision – student performs the task while the instructor is coaching the student if necessary.
iv. Evaluation – Instructor judges the students performance. Does it meet standards? Instructor then determines the effectiveness of the instruction.
f. Computer-based training method.
i. Students are able to progress at their own pace. The computer can create activities based on the student’s answers to questions.

E. Critique and Evaluation
a. Purpose and characteristics of an effective critique
i. Purpose – A critique should improve student’s performance and provide them with something constructive with which to work and upon which they can build.
ii. Characteristics
1. Objective – focused on student performance; should not reflect the personal opinions of the instructor
2. Flexible – fit in tone, technique, and content to the occasion and to the student.
3. Acceptable – students must first accept the instructor. Effective critiques are presented with authority, conviction, sincerity, and from a position of recognizable competence.
4. Comprehensive – cover a few major points or a few minor points as well as the student’s overall strengths and weaknesses.
5. Constructive – provide positive guidance for correcting the faults and strengthening the weaknesses.
6. Well-organized – follow some pattern of organization.
7. Thoughtful – geared toward the students need for self esteem, recognition, and approval from others.
8. Specific – comments and recommendations should not be so general that the student can find nothing to hold on to.
b. Methods and ground rules for a critique
i. Methods
1. Instructor/ Student critique – instructor leads a group discussion in which members of the class are invited to offer criticism of a performance.
2. Student-led critique – instructor asks a student to lead the critique
3. Small group critique – a class is divided into small groups and each group is assigned a specific area to analyze.
4. Individual student critique by another student – another student presents the entire critique.
5. Self – Critique – student is required to critique personal performance.
6. Written critique – instructor can devote more time and thought than an oral critique. Students can keep the critique.
ii. Ground Rules
1. Do not extend the critique beyond its scheduled time.
2. Avoid trying to cover too much.
3. Allow time for a summary.
4. Avoid absolute statements.
5. Avoid controversies with the class, do no take sides.
6. Never allow yourself to be maneuvered into the unpleasant position of defending criticism.
7. If written, make certain that it is consistent with the oral portion.
c. Characteristics of effective oral questions and what types to avoid.
i. One correct answer
ii. Apply to subject of instruction
iii. Brief and concise.
iv. Clear and definite
v. Center on one main idea.
vi. Types of Avoid
1. Puzzle – confusing the student
2. Oversize – very broad question.
3. Toss-up – one correct answer not too that are similar.
4. Bewilderment – do not confuse the student.
5. Trick Questions
6. Irrelevant questions
d. Responses to student questions.
i. The question must be clearly understood by the instructor before providing an answer. Instructor must provide interest in the student’s question.
ii. If the instructor cannot answer the question, admit it, and find the answer
e. Characteristics and development of effective written questions
i. Reliability – test results are consistent with repeated measurements.
ii. Validity – measures what is it suppose to measure
iii. Usability – functionality of the test- font size, easy to read.
iv. Objectivity – singleness of scoring the test, does not reflect biases of the person grading the test.
v. Comprehensiveness – measures all overall objectives
vi. Discrimination – distinguishes the difference between students

F. Flight Instructor Characteristics and Responsibilities
a. Providing adequate instruction.
i. No two students are alike. The instructor must devise different ways to teach each student.
b. Establishing standards of performance
i. Must hold students to PTS standards
ii. Instructors must evaluate their own effectiveness.
c. Emphasizing the positive.
i. Instructors have a huge influence on their student’s perception of aviation.
ii. Instructors attitudes, conduct them selves.
iii. Develop a positive image of aviation.
d. Providing student pilot evaluation and supervision
i. Evaluate student based on PTS standards.
ii. Correct student errors
e. Preparing practical test recommendations and endorsements
i. CFI certificate is on the line. Do not endorse student unless they meet standards. Flight instructor is held responsible for deficient areas.
ii. Students must have been trained in all areas before being endorsed for the practical.
f. Determining requirements for conducting additional training and endorsement requirements.
i. Determine what training is needed to sign off a flight review.
ii. Unsatisfactory flight review is just logged as dual given.
g. Describing methods to minimize student frustration
i. Motivate students
ii. Keep students informed
iii. Approach students as individuals
iv. Give credit when due
v. Criticize constructively
vi. Be consistent
vii. Admit Errors
h. Personal Characteristics
i. Sincerity – should be straightforward and honest.
ii. Acceptance of the student – should accept students as they are including all their faults and problems.
iii. Personal appearance and habits – should be neat, clean and appropriately dressed.
iv. Demeanor – should be calm, thoughtful, and disciplined.
v. Safety practices and accident prevention – practices emphasized by instructors have a lasting effect on students.
vi. Proper Language – should speak normally, without inhibitions, and develop the ability to speak positively and descriptively without excesses of language.
vii. Self – improvement – should be constantly alter for ways to improve their qualifications, effectiveness, and the services they provides to students.

G. Planning Instructional Activity
a. Developing objectives and standards for a course of training.
i. Before instruction can begin, objectives and standards must be determined. Standards are published in the PTS.
b. Theory of building block of learning
i. Represent units of learning which can be measured and evaluated, all which need to the final objective.
ii. Private Course blocks
1. First Solo
2. Solo Cross country
3. Preparation for practical test
c. Requirements for developing a training syllabus.
i. The objective
ii. The content
iii. The completion Standards.
d. Purpose and characteristics of a lesson plan.
i. To ensure the student receives the best possible instruction under the existing conditions
ii. Aids the instructor in presenting the material.
iii. Provides an outline of the teaching procedure.
iv. Gives inexperienced instructor confidence.
v. Characteristics
1. Unity – each lesson should be a unified segment of instruction.
2. Content – each lesson should contain new material.
3. Scope – each lesson should be reasonable in scope. A person can only master a few principles or skills at a time.
4. Practicality – each lesson should be planned in terms of the conditions under which the training is to be conducted.
5. Flexibility – flexibility should be incorporated – blank spaces for add on material.
6. Relation to Course of Training – Each lesson should be taught so that its relation to the course objectives are clear to each student.
7. Instructional Steps – every lesson when adequately developed, falls logically into the four steps of the teaching process.

F. Telling and Doing Technique
1. Instructor tells – Instructor Does
2. Student Tells – Instructor Does
3. Student Tells – Student Does
4. Student Does – Instructor evaluates

MultiEngine Study Guide

Piper Seminole
Vmc = 56 – never changes
Vmca – changes in flight – vmca in Seminole will always be lower than 56, unless the density altitude is really low.
Vmcg – minimum speed on the ground at which you can maintain directional control with the use of rudder alone. Larger planes do not use rudder to move nose wheel.

Factors that effect VMC
Story
Before you go flying calculate your most unfavorable weight and center of gravity. Before take off you set the flaps and trim for take off. Apply maximum available power. Put the gear up. Critical engine is lost. Propeller is wind milling. Apply no more than 5 degrees of bank. Apply 150lbs of rudder pressure. Climb out of ground effect.

1. Most unfavorable weight – light weight is most unfavorable because of the bank into the operating engine. A higher weight is favorable because the plane is creating more total lift and therefore more horizontal lift at the max 5 degrees, fighting the turning tendency. Higher weight decreases Vmc.

2. Most unfavorable Center of Gravity – Aft CG increases Vmc – shorter arm to the rudder, therefore it is less effective.


3. Flaps set for takeoff – airplane specific. Seminole flaps decrease vmca. Stabilizing effect . Increases lift and creates are greater lifting moment.

4. Trim set for takeoff – negligible.


5. Max available take off power. – Increases Vmc – more power, more yaw, more rudder.

6. Gear up – having GEAR DOWN decreases Vmc – keel effect, less rudder.


7. Critical engine lost – p-factor is greater, causing greater yawing tendencies. Increases Vmc.

8. Prop wind milling – More drag, more yaw , more rudder. Increases Vmc.


9. No more than 5 degrees of bank. – creating a horizontal lift component that counteracts the yaw. Less rudder is required. Decreases Vmc.

10. 150lbs of rudder pressure / Density altitude – higher density altitude decreases Vmc – less thrust is produced, less drag, less yaw, less rudder required.


11. Out of Ground effect. – decreases vmc.


Systems
Heater- Why do we want the whirling flame?
1. Stability – even heating of the canister
2. Efficiency.
What are the different blowers for?
1. Combustion – creates the whirling flame
2. Fresh air – cools heater and heats cabin. Nose gear switch turns of this blower.

Prop- below 950 rpm anti feathering pins fall in place.
Brings prop to Feather
1. Spring
2. Nitrogen Charge
3. Counter weights
Keep prop out of feather
1. oil pressure
2. Aerodynamic twisting force
How does the unfeathering accumulator work?

Holds high pressure oil from the governer. It is stored in the accumulator under pressure, until needed to move the prop back to normal pitch.

Electrical


Critical engine – the engine when lost that will most adversely effect performance. P-factor is the reason the engine is critical, it is the most pronounced.

Why is gear retraction low than gear extension?
Gear pump limitation – needs lots of pressure to bring gear up.

Supplemental Oxygen
Needed if above 12,500 for 30 mintues, crew needs it at 14,000. Passangers must
have it above 15,000.
a. Types
a. Continuous flow
b. Diluter Demand
c. Pressure demand

Pressurization
Isobaric control – maintains selected altitude.
Differential control – maintains set pressure differential between outside and
inside pressure

Commercial Study Guide

V-Speeds for the Piper Arrow - PA28R-201

Vso – 55 kts Vs – 60 kts Vfe – 103 kts

Vno – 146 kts Vne – 183 kts Va – 96 kts(1865 lbs.) & 118(2750 lbs)

Vy(gear down) – 78 kts Vy(gear up) – 90 kts

Vx(gear down) – 72 kts Vx(gear up) – 78 kts

VLE – 129 kts VLO – 107* & 129*

Remember VLO is actually two speeds because it is the operation speed. Basically it means when the gear is in transit. This happens twice(retraction & extension). Max gear retraction is 107 and max gear extension is 129. VLE is gear extended speed, the max speed you can fly around with the gear down and locked.
What is Va and why does it change with weight?

Va is the maximum speed at which application of full available aerodynamic control will not overstress the airplane. You want to be below this airspeed when you encounter turbulence or are maneuvering.
There is a couple of different ways of explaining why Va changes with weight. The most common has to do with angle of attack.

We have two aircraft:

Both aircraft are the same types and at the same airspeeds but are at different weights. Aircraft B is closer to the critical angle of attack. Thus, aircraft B is going to stall sooner. Remember, below Va we are going to stall before we overstress the aircraft so as a result if aircraft B is going to stall sooner, we can increase its Va.

Another way to look at why Va changes with weight comes out of the Arrow POH(pg. 2-1) and it deals with inertia. The larger an aircraft is, the less effect the aerodynamic forces are going to be when you use the flight controls. Thus a larger aircraft can go faster because the plane is not going to maneuver as quickly and decrease its ability to overstress the aircraft.

· Does stall speed change?

Yes! Configuration, weight, center of gravity, load factor, and wing contamination will change stall speed.

Configuration: The addition of flaps will lower stall speed. This is due to the change in camber of the wing with flaps.


Weight: An increase in weight will increase stall speed. A heavier airplane will fly at a higher angle of attack, and thus be closer to the critical angle of attack

Center of Gravity: An aft center of gravity will lower stall speed. This is because of the less tail down force required with an aft center of gravity. This results in the aircraft flying at lower angle of attack and farther away from the critical angle of attack.

Load Factor: As we increase bank, load factor increases. As we bank, we lose the vertical component of lift and as a result must increase the angle of attack. This puts the aircraft closer to the critical of angle, resulting in an increase in stall speed.

Wing Contamination: Any contamination in the form of ice, bugs, or wing structural damage will result in the airflow over the wing being disturbed. This causes early airflow separation and an increase in stall speed. This will vary greatly with the contamination.

Please note that we are talking about IAS. Thus, density altitude will NOT affect IAS.

1. Spin Awareness
· What aerodynamic conditions are required to enter a spin?
Both wings must be stalled but one is more stalled than the other. Generally this is caused by not being coordinated by improper use of the rudder. In the spin your airspeed is low even though the nose of the aircraft is pointing towards the ground.

· What are the four phases of a spin?

Entry phase – where the pilot provides the necessary elements for the spin.

Incipient phase – from the time the airplane stalls and rotation starts until the spin has fully developed. This may take up to two turns for most aircraft. In this phase, the aerodynamic and inertial forces have not achieved a balance.

Developed phase – occurs when the airplane’s angular rotation rate, airspeed, and vertical speed are stabilized while in a flightpath that is nearly vertical. This is where airplane aerodynamic forces and inertial forces are in balance. This spin is in equilibrium.

Recovery phase – control inputs are initiated to disrupt the spin equilibrium by stopping the rotation and stall.

Where is the most frequent flight situation where someone might accidentally enter a spin?
Generally in the past records has shown that turning final has been the most frequent cause of spins. A pilot might make the error of overshooting final. The pilot remembering from their initial training will wisely not want to increase bank beyond 30 degrees. The pilot instead of increasing bank could use rudder to increase the rate of turn resulting in uncoordinated flight. The pilot will begin to pull back and could result in a slow airspeed close to stall while being uncoordinated. These are the ingredients for entering a spin.

How would you recover from a spin?
Follow the checklist:

Rudder – Full opposite to direction of rotation. This is to break the rotation

Control Wheel – Full forward/Ailerons Neutral. We want to break the stall so as a result we lower the nose. We don’t want to use ailerons because this could actually aggravate the spin.

Throttle – Idle. We want to keep the pitch of the aircraft down to break the stall. Power will cause the pitch attitude to increase

Rudder – Neutral(When rotation stops) This is to prevent from inadvertently spinning in the opposite direction

Control – As required. You are pulling out of the dive

Throttle – As required. Resume normal cruise flight

What would an aft CG due to a spin?
Recovery from a stall in any aircraft becomes progressively more difficult as its center of gravity moves aft. This is particular important in spin recovery, as there is a point in rearward loading of any airplane at which a flat spin will develop. A flat spin could be impossible to recover from.

3. Certificates and Documents
· The documents should be a basic review from 102

Airworthiness Certificate

Explanation: The FAA issues an Airworthiness Certificate to all approved aircraft manufactured in the US (and some foreign countries).

Validity: The PIC must ensure that the Airworthiness Certificate is visibly displayed to all passengers and that the aircrafts’ “N number” appears on the certificate. For the Airworthiness Certificate to be valid, all required inspections must be completed, all FAA Airworthiness Directives complied with, and the PIC must have found the aircraft safe for flight.

Carriage: The Airworthiness Certificate must be visibly displayed (for all passengers to see). When the aircraft is sold, the Airworthiness Certificate is automatically transferred to the new owner. UND aircraft display the Airworthiness Certificate on the aft baggage bulkhead.

Federal Registration Certificate

Explanation: The FAA requires all US aircraft owners to register their aircraft. This registration is separate from any required state registration.

Validity: The aircraft must be registered under the owners’ name, and the correct “N number” must appear on the certificate. If the aircraft is sold, scrapped, or totaled, the FAA must be notified.

Carriage: The Federal Registration Certificate must be carried onboard the aircraft during flight. However, it doesn’t necessarily need to be displayed. UND displays the Federal Registration Certificate on the aft baggage bulkhead under the Airworthiness Certificate.

State Registration

Explanation: Some states require owners to register their aircraft. (ND does require state registration.) Since the FAA does not require the certificate, it will generally not be examined during a FAA ramp check. If the owner does not register the aircraft (when required), the FAA will not take enforcement action (i.e. a violation) but the state may fine the owner/operator.

Validity: Each state will set their own requirements for validity. ND owners must register their aircraft annually, and the “N number” must appear on the certificate.

Carriage: UND aircraft carry the ND state registration in the back of the Dispatch Book. New aircraft may not have a ND Registration Certificate.

FCC Radio Station License

Explanation: US aircraft operated within the US are not required to carry a FCC (Federal Communications Commission) Radio Station License on board the aircraft. However, US aircraft operated outside of the US are required to carry a FCC Radio Station License on board.

Validity: The certificate must have the owners’ name and address, and display the aircrafts’ “N number.”

Carriage: The certificate is required to be carried on board the aircraft during flights into foreign airspace, but doesn’t necessarily need to be displayed. UND aircraft carry the Radio Station License in the back of the Dispatch Book. New aircraft may not have a license yet.

Operating Limitations

Explanation: All aircraft must carry the FAA approved Pilot’s Operating Handbook or Airplane Flight Manual. In addition, they must contain all placards required by the “Limitations” section of the POH/AFM.

Validity: The POH must display the aircrafts’ “N number” and serial number on the cover page. POH’s purchased in the UND bookstore or from other pilot shops are not considered official, because they are not automatically updated if the aircraft is modified.

Carriage: The POH/AFM and all required placards must be on board the aircraft during flight. UND carries the POH in the seat pocket behind the pilot or copilot seat.

Weight and Balance and Equipment List

Explanation: Each aircraft must carry a record of the current basic empty weight, moment, and useful load. In addition, the aircraft must carry a list of all equipment, standard and optional, installed on the aircraft.

Validity: The weight, moment, and useful load must be published by the factory or approved (signed) by a certified mechanic. (i.e. A&P, CRS) The equipment list must be up to date and complete.

Carriage: The weight and balance is found in Section 6 of the POH, and the original equipment list is found in the back of the approved POH. When the weight and balance/equipment list is revised (i.e. due to the addition of new equipment), the old weight and balance is labeled “Superceded DD/MM/YY.” The new weight and balance and equipment list revision form is filed in Section 6 of the POH.

Minimum Equipment List

Explanation: Some aircraft contain a FAA approved Minimum Equipment List to allow them to operate with inoperative instruments and equipment. (UND aircraft contain these lists.) Each list includes four components: a Letter of Authorization, a Procedures Document, a Master Minimum Equipment List (MMEL), and a Preamble to the MMEL. The Letter of Authorization (LOA) is issued by the FAA and lists the “N numbers” of all aircraft authorized to operate under the MEL. The Procedures Document explains which equipment may be inoperative for flight and what procedures/actions must be taken before the aircraft can be flown. The Master Minimum Equipment List is created by the aircraft manufacturer and lists all equipment that may be inoperative for flight. The owner/operator (UND) may choose to leave some of these items out of the Procedures Document, and which then must be operative for flight. The Preamble to the MMEL explains how the manufacturer created the MMEL.

Validity: The aircraft’s “N number” must appear on the LOA, and the FAA must approve the entire Procedures Document. The MEL (Procedures Document) + LOA = a Supplemental Type Certificate (STC) An STC allows an aircraft to be flown after it has been modified (i.e. a different engine, inoperative equipment, etc.)

Carriage: All four components of the MEL must be onboard the aircraft for flight. UND places them in a black binder, which is usually found on one of the rear seats.

· How do we get a MEL?

The FAA has only one procedure for the issuance of MEL’s. The operator who wishes to conduct operations must contact the FSDO which has jurisdiction over the geographic area where the aircraft is based and make an appointment. The FSDO will then assign an inspector to advise the applicant about FAR requirements pertinent to using an MEL.
The assigned inspector will then provide the applicant with a copy of the appropriate MMEL, a copy of AC 91-67, and a copy of the preamble to the MMEL.

After this, the applicant and a team of inspectors (likely inspectors from the operations, airworthiness, and avionics unit) will discuss the requirements for the procedures document. When FSDO personnel believes that the applicant understands the requirements for operating with an MEL, the FSDO issues the operator the LOA.

Once the FSDO issues the LOA, the applicant is then responsible for developing the procedures document that will contain O and M procedures for disabling or rendering inoperative items. No further FAA approval is necessary, and the operator can begin flight operations. The MMEL, preamble, LOA, and the procedures document are now considered an MEL.

How to Remember All of the Documents:

MEL
Airworthiness Certificate
Registration (Federal)
Registration (State) and FCC Radio Station License
Operating Limitations (POH and Placards)
Weight and Balance and Equipment List

Certificates

Does your certificate expire? No – but you do need a BFR

BFR – 61.56 specifies that every 24 calendar months you need to do 1 hour of ground training and 1 hour of flight training. This only applies if in the preceding 24 calendar months you have not received a new certificate.

Does a UND stage check count as a BFR?

Yes & no. It depends on the stage check. Any final stage check where a certificate is issued counts as a BFR. (102/34, 325/104, 414/37, 415/26) This is no different than if you were to get a certificate part 61 from a designated piloted examiner.
You could count most stage checks as a BFR if you ask your stage check pilot in advance and he agrees to do it. The stage check pilot will need to make the proper entries in your logbook to denote that a BFR was completed. For final certificates, the date the actual certificate is issued is the date that will count to as when you will need another BFR. Not the date the stage check was completed.

Do you need to have your medical with you? What kind do you need and how long is it valid for?

Yes! You need to always have your certificate and medical with you when you are part of the flight crew(61.3)

When flying for compensation or hire you need at least a 2nd class medical which is valid for 12 calendar months. Although, if you are only going to exercise private privileges you only need a 3rd class medical.

Example: You get your 1st class medical on January 5, 2001. You can exercise commercial pilot privileges until January 31, 2002. You can use private pilot privileges until January 31, 2004(If your under 40).

Commercial Pilot Privileges

· You will be expected to know your basic privileges and limitations

61.133
A person who holds a commercial pilot certificate may act as PIC of an aircraft:
a) carrying persons or property for compensation or hire
b) for compensation or hire

- But keep in mind 61.133 also states that a commercial pilot must follow the applicable regulations such as part 121 & 135

Thus, a commercial pilot intending to conduct operations as PIC for hire should look cautiously at any proposal for revenue operating flights

The following facts should be considered:
a) Part 61 states that you may be paid for acting as PIC of an aircraft engaged in carrying for hire. Part 61 does not mention, that if acting totally by yourself, you could be considered a commercial operation(ie.Mesaba) and as such be subject to an entirely different set of regulations
b) A commercial pilot license by itself does not allow you to act as a commercial operator. It only allows you to work for a commercial operator and be paid for your service.
c) As a commercial pilot there are certain commercial operations where you do not need an operating certificate. Basically there are no restrictions. Examples of such operations are: student instruction, certain nonstop sightseeing, ferry or training flights, aerial work operations including crop dusting, banner towing, aerial photography, powerline or pipeline patrol etc. These are listed in part 119.1

· The basic test to see if you are acting like a commercial operator is if you were to be considered “holding out”. Holding out can be done in several ways:
- signs and advertising
- actions of salesmen
- physically holding out without advertising

Currency

This should be a basic review of 61.57. Remember you need 3 takeoff & landings as sole manipulator of the controls in the last 90 days in the same category(airplane, glider, airship) & class(single engine land, multi-engine land) in order to carry passengers. If you are going to be flying between 1 hour after sunset and 1 hour before sunrise you will need to do the landings to a full stop and within that time period. Remember: If you do 3 takeoffs and landings in a Seminole, you are NOT current in a warrior. But if you do 3 takeoffs and landings in C-172, you ARE current in a warrior. Also if you are night current, you ARE day current.

Maintenance

· What kind of maintenance program do we have at UND? Progressive!

- Instead of performing the annual or 100 hour inspection all at once, UND breaks the inspections into four phases. Each phase inspection includes a detailed inspection of selected components and a routine inspection of the remaining components. Phase inspections are conducted at 60-hour intervals. After all four inspections are complete, the aircraft has undergone the equivalent of an annual inspection. FAR 91.409 states that the aircraft must be airworthy at all times, and that the program must ensure that a complete inspection (detailed inspection of all components, completing an annual) is completed within each 12 calendar months. To comply with this FAR, the four phase inspections must be completed within a 12 month period.

The following table breaks down each phase inspection:

Phase
Detailed Inspection Items
Routine Inspection Items
1
Fuselage, Cabin, Empennage
Engine, Propeller, Wings, Landing Gear
2
Engine, Propeller
Cabin, Fuselage, Empennage, Wings, Landing Gear
3
Wings, Landing Gear
Cabin, Fuselage, Empennage, Engine, Propeller
4
Engine, Propeller
Cabin, Fuselage, Empennage, Wings, Landing Gear

More information can be found on the “Progressive Inspection” Study Guide on the HTMLez website

· Outside UND: What kind of maintenance needs to be done?

- Annual: For ALL aircraft and must be signed off by an Aircraft Inspector(IA)
- 100 hour: if carrying any person for hire or flight instruction. This can be signed off by an Airframe & Powerplant Mechanic(A&P) or an IA

- The annual is acceptable for a 100 hour but not vice-versa. You may overfly a 100 hour but not for more than 10 hours if the aircraft is to be flown to a place where the inspection can be done. The excess time used to reach a place where the inspection can be done must be included in computing the next 100 hours of time in service.

· Equipment Checks
- Transponder: inspected every 24 calendar months(91.413)
- ELT: inspected every 12 calendar months(91.207)
- Pitot-Static: inspected every 24 calendar months before IFR flight(91.411)

Required Equipment – 91.205

VFR

Day:
T – tachometer for each engine
O – oil pressure gauge for each engine
M – magnetic compass
A – airspeed indicator
T – temperature gauge for each liquid cooled engine
O – oil temperature gauge for each air cooled engine
F – fuel quantity indicator for each tank
L – landing gear position indicator for an airplane with retractable gear
A – altimeter
M – manifold pressure gauge for each altitude engine
E – ELT
S – seatbelts

Night:
F – fuses, one spare set, or three spare fuses of each kind required, that are accessible (the warrior has circuit breakers, so this doesn’t apply to us)
L – landing light if being operated for hire
A – anti-collision light system
P – position lights (after sunset)
S – source of electrical energy, this could be a battery or an alternator

IFR

G – generator
R – rate of turn indicator(turn coordinator)
A – altimeter
B – ball(slip-indicator ie. Inclinometer)
C – clock
A – attitude indicator
R – Two way radio & navigation equipment appropriate to the ground facilities to be used
D – Directional Gyro(Heading Indicator)

Inoperative Equipment

· You will be expected to explain the procedures to fly with inoperative equipment with a MEL and without a MEL. The best publication produced on this topic is Advisory Circular 91-67. You can find this file under “study guides” on the HTMLez website. Take special attention to the two flow charts on operating with/without a MEL on pages 8 & 16.
· Make sure you know the UND MEL procedures!(Discrepancy sheets, placards…etc.)

Special Flight Permits

· What is it and when are they necessary?

A “Special Flight Permit” may be issued for an aircraft that may not currently meet applicable airworthiness requirements but is capable of safe flight. These permits are typically issued for the following purposes:

- Flying an aircraft to a base where repairs will be made
- Delivering or exporting an aircraft
- Production flight testing
- Evacuating aircraft from areas of impending danger
- Customer demonstration flights

4. Weather Information

· This should be a review from 102. Be able interpret the following weather products and discuss a competent “go/no-go” decision. Use the aviation weather services book for studying but practice reading the weather using WSI or DUATS.

- METARs (Aviation Routine Weather Reports)
- SDs (Radar Reports)
- UAs (Pilot Reports)
- TAFs (Terminal Area Forecasts)
- FAs (Area Forecasts)
- FDs (Winds Aloft Forecasts)
- Inflight Advisories – Including the criteria for issuance
o WAs (Airmets)
o WSs (Sigmets)
o WSTs (Convective Sigmets)
- Surface Analysis Charts
- Weather Depiction Charts
- Radar Summary Charts
- Low Level Significant Weather Prognostic Charts (12/24 Hour)

5. Cross-Country Flight Planning

· This should be another review from 102. Your stage check pilot will give you a XC planning assignment. Be prepared to calculate close to maximum allowable passenger, baggage, and cargo loads. This may include an additional fuel stop or setting a lower power setting. DON’T FORGET TO CALCULATE A MANIFOLD PRESSURE. How else are you going to set the power? Also calculate a CAS! There is a box for it.

- Be familiar with the Arrow’s performance charts

· You will also be evaluated on the following:

- Selection of the course and checkpoints, including the use of applicable publications (A/FD, Charts)
- Use of radio navigation, including VOR radials and planning
- Selection of altitude based on forecast winds aloft, aircraft performance, course, etc.
- Computing True Airspeed
- Computing True Course, Magnetic Course, Wind Correction Angles, and Compass Heading
- Computing estimated groundspeed and ETE/ETA’s
- Fuel planning and requirements
- Filing a VFR Flight Plan

6. National Airspace System

· Another review from 102.
· You should be able to explain:
- all the different airspace/special use airspace and their associated weather minimums.
- airspace on any sectional not just the twin cities.
- equipment and pilot requirements for entering the different airspaces.

7. Performance and Limitations

· You should be very familiar with all performance charts for the arrow(section 5).
· Make sure you know the proper leaning procedures
· Best power: 100 degrees rich of peak EGT
· Best economy: Peak EGT
· You will be expected to know the factors affecting performance
· Wind
· Temperature
· Humidity(It decreases performance)
· Pressure
· What affects “maximum range” and “maximum endurance” and what is used to calculate them?
· The difference between IAS, CAS, TAS
IAS: What is read from your airspeed indicator
CAS: IAS corrected for position and instrument error. Use the POH(5-12) to convert IAS to CAS and vice versa
TAS: CAS corrected for altitude, temperature, and compressibility. You use your E6-B to convert CAS to TAS and vice versa

· Be able to discuss all V-speeds and when we would use them
· What effect would an aft CG have on an aircraft? Why?
- higher TAS, lower stall speed but less stability. The reasoning is there is less required tail down force. The aircraft acts more efficiently.

8. Operation of Systems

· You should be able to explain all systems of the Arrow. It is beyond the scope of this study guide to do this. When studying I would recommend using the Arrow study guide, the trainer available at the CBI lab and the POH. The stage check pilot will be required to ask you at least 5 of the following systems:

a. Primary flight controls, trims
· What are they?
· What are secondary flight controls?
· What is the difference between a trim tab and an anti-servo tab?

b. Flaps, leading edge devices, and spoilers
· What do flaps do?
· What is a “slot” and “slat”?

c. Powerplant and propeller
· What is the BHP of the Arrow?
· How does the propeller governor work?

d. Landing Gear
· What does the Arrow have to prevent us from landing gear up?
· Explain the landing gear schematic (page 7-9 POH)
· How does the manual landing gear extension work?
· Name all the switches on the gear and what they do?

e. Fuel System
· What types of fuels are approved for this aircraft?
· How many gallons of useable fuel are available?
· What is a “servo regulator”?
· What is a “fuel distributor”?

f. Electrical System
· Diagram the electrical system
· What is a voltage regulator and overvoltage relay?
· What kind of battery/alternator do we have?

g. Avionics system
· What is a “HSI”?

h. Pitot-static, vacuum/pressure and associated flight instruments
· What inputs into each of the instruments?
· What can you do if your vacuum/static instruments fail?

i. Environmental System
· How is the cabin heated and why might this be a hazard?

j. De-icing and Anti-icing systems
a) Does this aircraft have any type of de-ice or anti-ice capability?

9. Aeromedical Factors

· You will be expected to be able to explain the causes, effects, and corrective action of at least four of the following:

Hypoxia
o You should know all four types:
§ Hypemic: body cannot carry enough oxygen(Carbon Monoxide Poisoning)
§ Stagnant: inadequate circulation of oxygen(G-forces)
§ Histotoxic: inability of the cells to use oxygen(alcohol)
§ Hypoxic: inadequate amount of oxygen(climbing to a high altitude)

o Corrective Actions: supplemental oxygen, descend

Hyperventilation
o Excessive breathing. Can be caused by emotional stress, fright, or pain.

o Corrective Actions: breathe in paper bag, talk aloud, calm down, slow breathing rate

Middle Ear and Sinus Problems
o During descent the difference in pressure between inside the eardrum and outside the eardrum can cause pain. This can be aggravated by illness.

o Corrective Actions: valsalva maneuver, swallowing, chewing gum, decreasing descent rate or even climbing

Spatial Disorientation
o Your inner ear contains semicircular canals and the vestibule. These two together are called the vestibular system which is what gives the brain information on your body’s orientation. You can experience a variety of illusions as your brain interprets signals as specific motions. When subjected to the different forces of flight, the vestibular system can send misleading signals

o Corrective Actions: Trust your instruments!

Motion Sickness
o Caused by overstimulation of the vestibular system

o Corrective Actions: Open vents, loosen clothing, use O2, keep eyes outside

Carbon Monoxide
o Caused by a leak in the exhaust manifold which allows exhaust from the engine into the cabin

o Corrective Actions: close heat & defroster, open air vents, land as soon as practical

Stress & Fatigue
o Remember the “IMSAFE” checklist. (Illness, medication, stress, alcohol, fatigue, emotion)
o Acute fatigue – normal daily strain
o Chronic fatigue – not enough time for recovery of acute fatigue.

Alcohol & Drugs
o 8 hours bottle to throttle(91.17)
o altitude increases effects
o prescription and over the counter drugs should be approved by a flight surgeon

Nitrogen/Scuba Diving
o Nitrogen bubbles are released as pressure decreases
o May cause severe pain, paralysis, death
o You should wait at least(AIM 8-1-4):
§ Flying over 8,000’ 24 hours
§ Dive requiring decompression 24 hours
§ Dive non-controlled accent 12 hours

Dehydration
o The loss of water from respiration, sweat, and urination
o Water supports: blood pressure, oxygen delivery, body cooling, and waste processing
o Even mild dehydration has negative impacts: decreased coordination, fatigue, and impairment of judgement
o Prevention: drink fluids proactively not based on thirst. Drink plenty of water or sport drinks
o Amount of fluid you need is dependent upon your condition, stay in tune to your body
o Read the dehydration power point presentation on HTMLez

10. Night Flying

· Definition of Night
The definition of night can be found in FAR part 1, which defines it as the time between the end of civil twilight and the beginning of morning civil twilight. This is when we can log night time. It is usually about ½ hour after sunset, but does vary due to latitude.
- Position Lights need to be on from sunset to sunrise

· Physiology
Rods – used for peripheral vision and are located in a ring around the cones. Rods are better suited for night vision, and take about 30 minutes to adjust for darkness
Cones – used to detect color, detail, and are located in the center of the retina at the back of the eye. They are less sensitive to light, and are most useful for daylight hours.
- Significant deterioration in night vision can occur at altitudes as low as 5,000’, so if able use oxygen.

· Illusions
Featureless Terrain – creates the illusion the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is.
Autokinesis – in the dark, a static light will appear to move about when stared at for many seconds. The disorientated pilot will lose control of the aircraft while attempting to align it with the light.
Empty Field Myopia – usually occurs when flying above the clouds in a haze where there is little to focus on. This causes the eye to relax and seek a comfortable focal distance, which may range from 10 to 30 feet. This means looking without seeing.
Spatial Disorientation – not correctly interpreting what is up/down.
False Horizon – an obscured horizon, a dark scene spread with ground lights and stars, and certain geometric patterns of ground light can create illusions of not being aligned correctly with the actual horizon.
Bright runway lights – may create the illusion of less distance to the runway

Airport Facility Directory(AFD)

Before flight to any airport, the current airport facility directory should be consulted. On your stage check the stage check pilot may ask you questions about the AFD. You should be familiar with the directory legend in the front.

Pilot Control of Airport Lighting
Radio control of lighting is available at selected airports to provide airborne control of lights by keying the microphone.

7 clicks for high intensity (within 5-seconds)
5 clicks for medium intensity (within 5-seconds)
3 clicks for low intensity (within 5-seconds)

Beacons:
Lighted civilian land airports – alternating white & green
Lighted military airports – dual peaked white flashes between green flashes
Lighted heliport – green, yellow, white
Lighted water airport – white and yellow

Light Gun Signals(91.125)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Meaning with respect to Meaning withColor and type of signal aircraft on the respect to Surface aircraft in flight------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Steady green Cleared for Cleared to land. takeoff. Flashing green Cleared to taxi... Return for landing (to be followed by steady green at proper time). Steady red Stop Give way to other aircraft and continue circling. Flashing red Taxi clear of Airport unsafe--do runway in use. not land. Flashing white Return to starting Not applicable. point on airport. Alternating red and green Exercise extreme Exercise extreme caution. caution.



High Altitude Operations

· What are the part 91 oxygen requirements?

The flight crew needs oxygen if for more than 30 minutes you are operating at cabin altitudes of 12,500 MSL to 14,000 MSL. At cabin altitudes above 14,000 the flight crew needs oxygen regardless of the length you are operating above 14,000. Above 15,000 all passengers need oxygen.

· Can any kind of oxygen be used for supplemental oxygen?
No, oxygen used for medical purposes normally should not be used because it may contain too much water. The excess water could condense and freeze in the oxygen lines when flying at high altitudes. Specifications for “aviator’s breathing oxygen” are 99.5% pure oxygen.

· What are some different kinds oxygen systems?
Oxygen system for aviation use are available in the three basic configurations; continuous flow, diluter demand, and pressure demand.

Continuous flow – provides continuous flow of oxygen and are generally good up to 25,000’

Diluter demand – this features a valve that opens to allow cabin air into the mask to mix with oxygen. As you climb, the duration and amount that the valve opens progressively decreases until about 28,000’, where the valve remains closed to provide 100% oxygen for inhalation.

Pressure demand – at altitudes above 40,000’, even breathing 100% oxygen is not enough to provide adequate respiration because the atmospheric pressure is too low to support proper oxygen saturation into the bloodstream. The pressure demand system is used to provide positive pressure oxygen, which is forced into your lungs when you inhale.

Instrument Oral Exam

Weather Information (The specific reports below are only examples. Be sure to know how to read each kind of weather report and forecast, not just these examples!)
Name all the weather reports, forecasts, etc. where you could find information for your flight, concerning the following conditions:
Icing
Turbulence
IFR conditions
Thunderstorms
Freezing Levels
You are planning an IFR cross-country to Valley City, ND. What weather product will you use to determine if an alternate airport is required?
Explain what the below weather product is, including what exactly it is telling you:

MVX 1635 AREA 3R 254/110 158/84 130W MT 230 248/94
AREA 4R- 102/56 141/67 32W

Explain what the following weather products are describing:

RWF UA /OV RWF/TM 1529/FLUNKN/TP SF34/TA M14/IC LGT MXD 100-090

PIR UA /OV PIR-PIR 360040/TM 1513/FL060/TP PA31/SK OVC045/TOPS055/SCTE070-075/TA M20C/IC NEG/RM BTN LYRS

What are NOTAMs?
How many different kinds of NOTAMs are there? Give an example of each kind.

Cross Country Flight Planning (Expect to be asked to plan an IFR cross country on your stage check. The route may be different than what you will actually fly during the flight portion of the stage check. Make sure you are familiar with all symbology on the en-route chart(s) and approach chart(s) you will be using.)
Explain how to determine if an alternate airport is required when filing an IFR flight plan.
You are planning an IFR flight to Valley City, ND and determine that an alternate airport is required. You would like to use Jamestown, ND as the alternate. What weather conditions must exist at Jamestown (and for what time period) for this to be legal?
Is there a minimum amount of fuel reserves required while on an IFR flight plan? If so, explain what the requirements are.
On your flight from Grand Forks to Valley City, ND the winds are most favorable at and below 7000’ MSL. What altitude would you chose to fly at, and why?
Looking at an IFR en-route chart (Jeppesen or NOS) explain why some airports are colored differently than others.
Define the following terms, and explain what they mean: (be sure to know how to identify all of these on an en-route chart as well)
MEA
MOCA
OROCA
MRA
MCA
Compulsory Reporting Point
Non-compulsory Reporting Point
Explain what a Departure Procedure (DP) is, how it is used, and where it can be found.
Explain what a Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) is, how it is used, and where it can be found.
Given the following scenario, describe the appropriate action to be followed:

You file an IFR flight plan from Grand Forks to Bismark, ND via V561 to JMS, V2 to BIS at an altitude of 6000 feet, with an en-route time of 1 hour 45 minutes. You depart Grand Forks at 1320 Zulu. While en-route to JMS, ATC asks you to maintain 4000 feet for traffic, and hold at JMS. You are given an EFC time of 1430 Zulu. Prior to reaching JMS, you experience a radio communications failure. What do you do if you remain in Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC) at all times? What if you encounter Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC) at some point?

Aircraft Systems Related To IFR Operations
1. Describe all of the anti-icing/deicing systems on the Piper Warrior. For each system, state if it is an anti-icing or a deicing system.

Aircraft Flight Instruments and Navigation Equipment
1. Name all the instruments/equipment on the Piper Warrior connected to the pitot/static system.
2. Describe how the Altimeter works.
3. Define the following:
a. Pressure Altitude
b. Density Altitude
c. Absolute Altitude
d. True Altitude
4. Describe how the Airspeed Indicator works.
5. What would happen to the Airspeed Indicator if the pitot tube and drain hole became clogged, while the static port remained open?
6. Explain how the Vertical Speed Indicator works.
7. Name all the instruments/equipment on the Piper Warrior connected to the vacuum system.
8. Explain how the Attitude Indicator works, including how it corrects for any errors it may be susceptible to.
9. Explain how the Heading Indicator works.
10. In the Piper Warrior, do we have a Turn and Slip Indicator or a Turn Coordinator?
11. What is the difference between a Turn and Slip Indicator and a Turn Coordinator?
12. Explain how a Turn and Slip Indicator and a Turn Coordinator work.
13. Explain how the magnetic compass works, including any inherent errors.
14. Explain how a VOR station and our VOR receiver work to determine where the aircraft is located.
15. Explain how DME works to determine the aircraft’s distance from a station.
16. Explain how an ILS system works.
17. What is a service volume, and why is it important?
18. Describe the different service volumes for:
a. VOR
b. NDB
c. ILS
19. Explain how GPS works.
20. When referring to GPS, what is RAIM and why is it important?

===================================================================

Weather Products
1. Icing – airmet, sigmet, pireps, winds aloft, sig weather progs
2. Turbulence – airmet, sigmet, pireps, winds aloft, sig weather progs
3. IFR conditions – TAFs, area forecasts, airmets, sigmets, weather depiction
4. Thunderstorms – TAFs, area forecasts, convective sigmet, sigmet, radar summary, sig weather progs.
5. Freezing levels – winds aloft, surface analysis chart, constant pressure analysis.
Convective sigmet – scheduled, every hour, valid 2 hours.
Sigmets – unscheduled, valid 4 hours.
Airmets - scheduled, every 6 hours, valid 6 hours.


Determine If alternate is required
1 hour before/after 3miles visibility, 1,000ft ceilings.

Notams
1. Distant – affect usage of airport or navigation facility, closed runway, VOR out.
2. Local – Have little impact on airport operations, taxi way closure, beacon out.
3. FDC – temporary flight restrictions, air shows, natural disasters.

En-Route Items
1. MEA – minimum en-route altitude
2. MOCA – minimum obstacle clearance altitude. Navigation signal 22nm.
3. OROCA – off route obstruction clearance altitude. 1000ft non-mountainous 2000ft mountainous.
4. MRA – minimum reception altitude.
5. MCA – minimum crossing altitude.
6. Compulsory reporting point
7. Non-compulsory reporting point

Departure Procedure – provide transition from terminal to enroute. No person is required to accept a DP. Published in textual and graphic, must have one those these to accept DP

Standard Terminal Arrival Route – transition from enroute to approach. No person is required to accept a STAR. Must have an approved textual description.

Four Segments of an Approach
1. Initial approach – initial approach fix
2. Intermediate – between initial and final approach fix.
3. Final – decent for landing.
4. Missed – missed approach point.

Aircraft Systems Related to IFR Operations
1. Pitot heat- anti-ice
2. Carb heat – anti-ice/de-ice

Aircraft Flight Instruments and Navigation Equipment
1. How the altimeter works – sealed aneroid wafer move as static pressure in the sealed case changes.
2. Pressure altitude – height above standard datum plane. Altitude when altimeter is set to 29.92
3. Density altitude – pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature.
4. Absolute Altitude – actual height of the aircraft above the around.
5. True Altitude – height above mean sea level.
6. How the airspeed indicator works – measures difference in dynamic and static pressure.
7. Indicated airspeed – airspeed shown on the instrument.
8. Calibrated airspeed – speed the aircraft is moving through the air. Indicated airspeed corrected for instrument and position error.
9. Equivalent Airspeed – calibrated airspeed corrected for compression of air inside the pitot tube.
10. True Airspeed – calibrated airspeed corrected for non-standard pressure and temperature.
Clogs
1. pitot tube and drain hole clogged – airspeed acts as an altimeter.
2. static port freezes – decent read high, climb indicate low. Level indicate same.

How the VSI works – Both aneroid and case are connected to the static source, but the case is vented through a calibrated leak. Shows trend information.

Attitude Indicator – works on rigidity in space. Mounted on a double gimbal, allows aircraft to pitch and roll about the gyro as it remains fixed in space. Pendulous vanes help erect the indicator. The attitude indicator must be remain level, if it is not parallel with the ground gravity swings the vanes open causing the gyro to become level again.
Errors occur when aircraft rolls out of a 180 degree turn, g-forces cause gyro to precess. Gyro can tumble – 100 degrees of bank and 60 degrees of pitch.

Heading Indicator – double gimbal ,vertically spinning gyro, ridge in space. Senses movement about the aircraft vertical axis, through a series of gears turns the compass card. Errors – precession, caused by pitching or banking of the airplane.

Difference between turn and slip indicator and a turn coordinator
1. turn coordinator shows both rate of roll and turn. Turn an slip indicator only show rate of turn.

How turn coordinator work – operates on precession. Force is felt 90 degrees of where it was applied. Gyro is canted which allows it to sense rate of roll and rate of turn. Inclinometer indicates if you are using the correct angle of bank for the rate of turn.

How magnet compass works and errors – contains two magnets attached to a metal float sealed inside the bowl in a compass fluid similar to kerosene. These magnets are attracted to the earth’s lines of magnetic flux.
Errors
1. Variation – Difference between true north and magnetic north. Isogonic lines show the degrees of variation. Agonic line is where there in no variation.
2. Deviation – magnetic fields caused by electrical fields in the airplane.
3. Dip errors – northerly turning error and acceleration error.
a. Northerly turning error – starting a turn from a northerly heading, the compass lags behind the turn. When starting a turn form the south the compass leads the turn.
b. Acceleration error - acceleration causes an indication toward north, deceleration causes an indication toward south.
Explain how VOR station and VOR receives work to determine where aircraft is located – 1. Station send out a reference and variable phase signal, receives determines the difference between the reference and variable phase and calculates the radial your on.

Explain how DME determines aircraft distance
1. Aircraft transmits interrogating RF pulses which are received by the DME antenna on the ground. The ground receiver transmits back and the DME receiver determines the time and calculates a distance.

Describe different service volumes for:
1. VOR- 108.0-117.95 mhz
a. terminal – 1,000 ft – 12,000ft – 25nm
b. Low – 1,000ft – 18,000ft – 40nm
c. High – 1,000ft – 14,500 ft – 40nm
i. 14,500 – 60,000 – 100nm
ii. 18,000 – 45,000 – 130nm

2. NBD- 190 – 535 khz
a. HH – 75nm
b. H – 50nm
c. MH – 25nm
d. Compass locator – 15nm
3. ILS – 108.1 – 111.95 – odd tenths
a. 18nm @ 10 degrees
b. 10nm @ 35 degrees

Explain how GPS works – 3 segments –
Satellites broadcast a pseudo-random code timing signal and data message that the aircraft equipment uses to obtain satellite position and status data.
1. space - 24 satellites – at least 5 are in view at all times.
2. control - ground based monitoring systems – 5 monitoring stations, 3 ground antennas, and a master control station.
3. Users – antennas and receives on board the aircraft.

What is RAIM and why is it important:
RAIM- receiver autonomous integrity monitoring. Determines if the satellite is providing corrupted information. Needs 5 satellites or 4 with baro-aiding to detect an integrity anomaly. Active monitoring of an alternate means of navigation is required when the RAIM capability of the GPS equipment is lost.

Communications failure –
Route
1.Assigned
2.Vectored
3.Filed
Altitude – highest of these
1. Assigned
2. MEA
3. Expected.

Private Pilot Study Guide

Airworthiness Certificate –
1. Duration – As long as maintenance is kept up on the aircraft. Annual if not for hire, 100hr if used for hire.
2. Requirements – TOMATO FLAMES – Tach, oil pressure gauge, manifold pressure gauge, altimeter, temp gauge, oil temp gauge, fuel gauge, landing gear position indicator, air speed indicator, magnetic direction indicator, ELT, safety belt.

Registration Certificate – Federal and State registrations. Federal is good for as long as you own the plane. State is good for 1 year in ND – varies with other states.

Operating Manual – Pilots operating handbook and all placards must be on plane during flight.

Weight and Balance – official weight and balance is found in the pilots operating handbook or MEL.

Equipment list – lists all the equipment installed on the aircraft.

MEL – a Letter of Authorization, a Procedures Document, a Master Minimum Equipment
List (MMEL), and a Preamble to the MMEL.
1. To get an MEL you must get an MMEL – choose the things you want then send it to the FAA for approval
2. If you do not have an MEL – check FAR 91.213
a. Type certification
b. Kinds of operation
c. 91.205 – TOMATO FLAMES
d. Airworthiness directives.
3. Ferry Permit – allows one to fly plane to airport with maintenance.

Private pilot certificate
1. Duration – life time, 24 month review flight
2. Privileges –
3. Limitations –
4. Requirement for a solo XC – endorsements – logbook + student pilot certificate

Medical Certificate –
1. Duration – First Class – the 6th month after the date shown. Second Class – the 12th month after the date shown. Third Class – the 36th month after the date shown.
Logbook – Must have logbook with proper endorsements on all solo XC flights. Logbook
endorsement, student pilot certificate.

Performance and Limitations
1. Density altitude – pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temp and pressure. High density altitude – airplane performance decreases because air density decreases. Low density altitude – airplane performance increases because air density increases.
2. Pressure altitude – height above ground when 29.92 is set in the altimeter. Effects takeoff and landing distances.
3. Runway conditions – paved, level, dry
4. Associated conditions listed on the performance charts
5. Weight and CG location – AFT CG – airplane become tail heavy and very unstable. Stabilator may be ineffective for stall or spin recovery. Forward CG – longer takeoff distance, higher stall speed, Stabilator may not be able to lift the nose.

Weight and Balance
1. Gross weight – weight of aircraft and everything in it.
2. Ramp/Takeoff/Landing Weights – Ramp weight – maximum weight for ground operations. Takeoff – maximum weight to start takeoff roll. Landing – maximum weight for touchdown.
3. Arm- distance from the datum measured along the longitudinal axis
4. Station- position of a specific point in the fuselage.
5. Moment – weight acting at a distance
6. basic empty weight - standard equipment and optional equipment
7. standard empty weight - empty weight plus fluids and unusable fuel.
8. useable/unusable fuel – fuel that can be used.
9. useful load – total usable fuel, passengers, cargo.
10. payload – passengers and cargo on board.

High Gross Weight – increase stability, takes more energy to control, stall speed increases, required more lift (increased angle of attack), takeoff and landing rolls are greater, climb rate is reduced, cruise speed reduced, greater fuel consumption.

Explain the effects of CG location and aircrafts performance
1. Forward CG
a. Longitudinal stability too stable, hard to flare/rotate
b. Takeoff roll increased
c. Landing flare difficult
d. Cruise speed decreased,
e. Climb rate reduced
f. Range reduced
g. Stall speed increased
2. AFT CG
a. Longitudinal stability less stable, pitch up- tendency
b. Takeoff roll reduced, rotation problems / over-rotation
c. Landing roll reduced, flare problems / over-rotation
d. Cruise speeds – increased
e. Climb rates – increased
f. Fuel consumption – decreased
g. Range increased
h. Stall speeds reduced, recovery problems

FAR’S

91.3 – Responsibility and authority of the pilot in command
1. pilot in command in the final authority to the operation of the aircraft.
2. In an emergency requiring immediate action the PIC can deviate from any rule.
3. A pilot who deviates from a rule must shall send a written report to the Administrator upon request.

91.7 – Civil aircraft airworthiness
1. the PIC is responsible for determining whether the airplane is in condition for safe flight.

91.9 – Civil aircraft flight manual, marking, and placard requirements.
1. no person may operate an aircraft unless the Airplane Flight Manual in is the aircraft.
91.17 – Alcohol and Drugs
1. 8 hours after drinking
2. under the influence
3. BAC of .04

91.103 – Preflight Action
1. For any flight runway lengths and takeoff and landing distances must be known.
91.105 – Flight Crewmembers at stations
1. During takeoff/landing seat belts on.
91.107 – Use of safety Belts
1. No pilot may takeoff unless passengers are briefed on how to use seafety belts. No pilot may move, land, or takeoff unless each person has been notified to fasten their safety belt.
91.111 – Operating near other aircraft
MAY NOT
1. operate aircraft so close to another aircraft to create a collision hazard.
91.113 – Right-of-way Rules
1. Aircraft in distress
2. Less maneuverable aircraft.
3. aircraft at lower altitude
91.119 – Minimum Safe Altitudes
1. an altitude that if the engine fails you can make a safe emergency landing
2. Congested area – 1,000 ft above object, 2,000ft horiztonal.
3. non congested area – 500 feet above the surface/ any person, vessel, vehicle, structure.
91.121 – Altimeter Settings
1. Altimeter setting must be set to station along the route and within 100 miles of the aircraft.
19.125 – ATC Light Signals





91.126 – Operating in Class G airspace.
1. When approaching an airport, all turns must be to the left.
2. Contact ATC prior to 4 nm at and including 2,500ft AGL.
91.127 – Class E Airspace
1. Pilot must comply with traffic patterns established at that airport.
2. contact ATC prior to 4 nm at and including 2,500ft AGL.

91.129 – Class D Airspace
1. Must establish contact with ATC while flying through airspace.
91.130 – Class C Airspace
1. Two-way radio contact, 4096 code- mode C transponder
91.131 – Class B Airspace
1. Two-way radio contact
2. 4096 code -mode C transponder
91.133 – Restricted and Prohibited Airspace
1. No person may operate in airspace unless they have permission by the controlling agency.
91.135 – Class A Airspace
1. Must receive ATC clearance before entering airspace.
2. two-way radio
3. 4096 code -Mode C transponder

91.151 – Fuel Requirements – VFR
1. 30 minutes fuel during the day. 45 minutes fuel during night.
91.153 – VFR Flight Plan
1. When filing a flight plan each person must include – aircraft number, type of aircraft, name and address of pilot, point and time of departure, route and cruising altitude, point of first intended landing, fuel on board, number of person onboard.
91.155 – Basic VFR Weather minimums –
1. Class B – 3sm clear of clouds
2. Class C,D – 3sm – 500below, 1000 above, 2000 horiztonal
3. Class E – below 10,000 – 3sm – 500 below, 1000 above, 2000 horizontal
4. Class E – 10,000 or above – 5sm – 1000 below, 1000 above, 1 mile horizontal
5. Class G – 1,200 above surface Day – 1sm – clear of clouds – night – 3sm – 500,1000, 2000.
6. Class G – more than 1,200 above surface but less than 10,000. Day – 1sm – 500,1000, 2000. Night – 3sm – 500, 1000, 2000.
91.157 – Special VFR weather minimums
1. ATC clearence needed – 1sm visibility.
91.159 – VFR cruising altitudes –
1. 0 –179 – odds + 500ft
2. 180-359 – evens + 500ft
91.207 – Emergency Locator Transmitters
1. Inspection every 12 calendar months
2. Battery must be replaced if ELT has been on for 1 hour or has passed half its battery life.
3. Every plane needs one.
91.209 – Aircraft Lights
1. no person may operate an aircraft during the hours on sunset to sunrise unless:
a. position lights
b. Anti-collision lights
91.215 – ATC Transponder and Altitude Reporting Equipment and Use
1. Must have 4096 code Mode C capable transponder in Class A, B, C.
2. You do not need one if your aircraft has never had an engine driven electrical system.
91.403 – General Maintenance
1. Owner or Operator is responsible for keeping the aircraft airworthy.
91.405 – Maintenance Required
1. Owner/Operator will make sure aircraft is inspected and proper maintenance entires are made.
91.407 – Operations after Maintenance
1. No person may operate an aircraft unless:
a. It has been approved for return to service by authorized person.
b. A pilot with a private pilot cert flies the aircraft and makes an operational check of the maintenance performed.
91.417 – Maintenance Records
1. Owner must keep records of all maintenance, preventative, 100hr, annual, progressive.
2. Records shall be kept until work in repeated, superseded by other work for 1 year after the work in performed.


91.203 – Civil Aircraft: Certifications Required
1. Each aircraft must have an Airworthiness Certificate and Federal Registration

91.213 – Inoperative Instruments and Equipment
1. No person may operate an aircraft with inoperative instruments or equipment unless they have an approved MEL.

91.409 – Inspections
1.Annual inspection
2. 100 hour inspection
3. progressive – 4 phases 60 hrs between.

Special Use Airspace and other Airspace
1. Rescricted areas – unusual, often invisible hazards to aircraft such as military firing, aerial gunnery, or guided missiles.
2. Warning Areas – activity that may be hazardous to nonparticipating aircraft such as: aerial gunnery, guided missiles. They extend 3nm outward from the coast of the US.
3. MOA Areas – Pilots should contact FSS within 100nm to determine MOA hours of operation, exercise extreme caution when MOA is active.
4. Military Training Routes – below 10,000 AGL speed 250knot +
a. IR means routes are IFR, VR mean VFR
b. 3 digit number means one or more segments are above 1,500 AGL.
c. 4 digit number means no segments are above 1,500 AGL.
5. Wildlife Areas – pilots are REQUESTED to stay above 2,000 ft AGL.
5. Prohibited Areas – airspace where no person may fly without the permission of the controlling agency.
6. Alert Areas – airspace that contains a large volume of pilot training.
7. Terminal Radar Service Area
a. ATC provides vectoring, sequencing, and separation to all IRF and participating VFR traffic.
8. Air Defense Identification Zone (ADIZ)
a. airspace over land or water extending upward from the surface, in which the identification, location, and control of the aircraft are required.

Weather

Airmet – effect smaller aircraft – moderate icing, moderate turbulence, winds 30 knots +.

Convective Sigmet – tornadoes, lines of thunderstorms, embedded thunderstorms, ¾ inch
hail or great.

Sigmet – Weather advisory for ALL aircraft – severe and extreme turbulence, severe icing, wide spread dust and sand storms.

Metars – come out every hour, valid for that hour
Radar Reports – come out every hour at 35 minutes past the hour
TAFS – come out every 6 hours, 0000z, 0600z, 1200z, 1800z, usually valid for 24 hours.
Area Forecasts – time the synopsis says.
Winds Aloft – 0000z and 1200z
Surface Analysis – Every 3 hours
Weather Depiction Charts – Begins at 0100z at 3 hour intervals
Radar Summary Charts – Hourly at 35 past the hour
Low Level Prognostic Chart – issued four times a day, 0000z, 0600z, 1200z, 1800z. The
12 hour chart is valid for 12 hours and the 24 hour chart is valid for 24 hours.


Local Notams – are distributed locally – contain taxiway closures, personnel and
equipment near runways.
Distant Notams – distributed Nationally – affects navigational facilities.
FDC Notam – temporary flight restrictions or amendments to instrument approach
procedures and aeronautical charts.

To help other pilots out. I will begin to post study guides for various FAA Check Rides.

Any questions just let me know. So if you want to post comments on how your own check rides went. Feel free!